--- title: "Foundations of Readability Create accessible, easy-to-process documents and presentations" author: "Dominik Lukeš" book_id: "readability-foundations" licence: "CC BY (Creative Commons Attribution), as stated in the original guide" licence_url: "https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/" source_url: "https://readability.edutools.fyi/" reader_url: "https://dominiklukes.net/books/readability/?book=readability-foundations" sections: 14 sections_with_text: 14 --- # Foundations of Readability Create accessible, easy-to-process documents and presentations By Dominik Lukeš. An interactive guide on document and presentation readability principles based on the work of Dominik Lukeš. Licence: [CC BY (Creative Commons Attribution), as stated in the original guide](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/). Source: https://readability.edutools.fyi/ ## Contents - [Five principles](https://dominiklukes.net/books/readability/agent/readability-foundations/chapters/five-principles.md) · [reader](https://dominiklukes.net/books/readability/?book=readability-foundations§ion=five-principles) - [How people read](https://dominiklukes.net/books/readability/agent/readability-foundations/chapters/how-people-read.md) · [reader](https://dominiklukes.net/books/readability/?book=readability-foundations§ion=how-people-read) - [Cognitive load](https://dominiklukes.net/books/readability/agent/readability-foundations/chapters/cognitive-load.md) · [reader](https://dominiklukes.net/books/readability/?book=readability-foundations§ion=cognitive-load) - [10 tips for documents](https://dominiklukes.net/books/readability/agent/readability-foundations/chapters/10-simple-things-docs.md) · [reader](https://dominiklukes.net/books/readability/?book=readability-foundations§ion=10-simple-things-docs) - [10 tips for slides](https://dominiklukes.net/books/readability/agent/readability-foundations/chapters/10-simple-things-ppt.md) · [reader](https://dominiklukes.net/books/readability/?book=readability-foundations§ion=10-simple-things-ppt) - [Visual examples (Text)](https://dominiklukes.net/books/readability/agent/readability-foundations/chapters/formatting-examples.md) · [reader](https://dominiklukes.net/books/readability/?book=readability-foundations§ion=formatting-examples) - [Visual examples (Slides)](https://dominiklukes.net/books/readability/agent/readability-foundations/chapters/slide-formatting-examples.md) · [reader](https://dominiklukes.net/books/readability/?book=readability-foundations§ion=slide-formatting-examples) - [3 steps to simple language](https://dominiklukes.net/books/readability/agent/readability-foundations/chapters/3-steps-simple.md) · [reader](https://dominiklukes.net/books/readability/?book=readability-foundations§ion=3-steps-simple) - [Examples](https://dominiklukes.net/books/readability/agent/readability-foundations/chapters/examples.md) · [reader](https://dominiklukes.net/books/readability/?book=readability-foundations§ion=examples) - [Jargon & Acronyms](https://dominiklukes.net/books/readability/agent/readability-foundations/chapters/acronyms.md) · [reader](https://dominiklukes.net/books/readability/?book=readability-foundations§ion=acronyms) - [Readability Checker](https://dominiklukes.net/books/readability/agent/readability-foundations/chapters/readability-tool.md) · [reader](https://dominiklukes.net/books/readability/?book=readability-foundations§ion=readability-tool) - [Language Checklist](https://dominiklukes.net/books/readability/agent/readability-foundations/chapters/checklist.md) · [reader](https://dominiklukes.net/books/readability/?book=readability-foundations§ion=checklist) - [Accessibility](https://dominiklukes.net/books/readability/agent/readability-foundations/chapters/accessibility.md) · [reader](https://dominiklukes.net/books/readability/?book=readability-foundations§ion=accessibility) - [Evidence](https://dominiklukes.net/books/readability/agent/readability-foundations/chapters/evidence.md) · [reader](https://dominiklukes.net/books/readability/?book=readability-foundations§ion=evidence) --- > Section 1 of 14 · Five principles · id `five-principles` · [read in the reader](https://dominiklukes.net/books/readability/?book=readability-foundations§ion=five-principles) # Five principles of readability Learn the core principles: Space, Chunks, Guides, Information Structure, and Simple Language. Mastering these five foundational principles will instantly elevate the quality and accessibility of your documents. ## Space Increasing the amount of space makes it **easier to process**. The more space around the text, the **more attention** is available for content. **Easiest ways of increasing space:** - Larger font - Increased line spacing - Shorter lines **Avoid formatting that distorts:** - Underlining - ALL CAPS - *Italics for whole paragraphs* - Centred paragraphs > **Tip** > > Tip: Avoid table borders being too close to the text. ## Chunks Splitting text into smaller **chunks makes it easier to process**. Readers can both **skim and scan the text more quickly**. **You should break:** - **Text** into sections and subsections marked with headings - **Lists** into bullet points or numbered lists - **Blocks** of text into shorter paragraphs ## Guides Adding guides helps the reader spend less time decoding and **focus on what you want to say**. - **Bold key phrases** in long paragraphs - Provide an **outline summary** - Add **icons** to help recall - Summarise instructions with **flowcharts** - Use **images** to illustrate ## Information Structure Give the **important information first**. Put **background second or last**. Take your cues from journalistic texts. Start with the new information. > **Important!** This does not mean removing background info, just moving it to the end or a linked document. **Move these to the end:** 1. Welcomes and thanks 2. Historical or institutional background 3. Information obvious from context ## Simple Language - **15-20** Words per sentence. Use shorter sentences - **"You"** Address the reader. Instead of "Users" - **Verbs** Action over Nouns. "Arrive" vs "Arrival" --- > Section 2 of 14 · How people read · id `how-people-read` · [read in the reader](https://dominiklukes.net/books/readability/?book=readability-foundations§ion=how-people-read) # How people read: strategies and approaches Understand reading strategies like skimming and scanning to better inform document creation. > **We don't read documents like stories.** > > Most documents are not stories, and they are not (and should not) be read that way. People read strategically. ## 5 assumptions about reading When creating a document, assume most readers will: 1. Not read from start to finish 2. Not read every word 3. Skim first to decide to read 4. Return only for specific info 5. Read many other documents simultaneously ## 3 Reading Strategies - **Strategy 1: Comprehensive** Reading from start to finish. Used for stories. > **Support:** Logical structure, narrative arc. - **Strategy 2: Skimming** Reading for gist. Jumping around. > **Support:** Headings, TOC, Lists, Highlights. - **Strategy 3: Scanning** Finding specific information. > **Support:** Clickable TOC, Searchable text. --- > Section 3 of 14 · Cognitive load · id `cognitive-load` · [read in the reader](https://dominiklukes.net/books/readability/?book=readability-foundations§ion=cognitive-load) # Readability through the lens of cognitive load Explore how working memory limits affect reading and how to reduce mental effort for your readers. Cognitive load is the **amount of information** placed in working memory. Working memory **limits what you can reason about**. > **The Golden Rule** > > "The best way to reduce cognitive load is to **increase the number of meaningful chunks**." ## Load Factors **Increases Load** - Hard to read text - Distractions - Irrelevant images - Unasked for movement - Noise **Decreases Load** - Shorter chunks - Meaningful chunks - Meaningful structure - Visual guides - Combined text and audio ## Stress Factors **Situational Demands** - Tired - Busy - New environment **Permanent Demands** - Visual impairment - Dyslexia - Attention disorders - Anxiety - Non-native language --- > Section 4 of 14 · 10 tips for documents · id `10-simple-things-docs` · [read in the reader](https://dominiklukes.net/books/readability/?book=readability-foundations§ion=10-simple-things-docs) # 10 tips for readable documents Actionable steps to immediately improve your documents, from headings to font choices. Using the five principles, you can improve the readability of your document in 10 steps. ## Headings Break documents into section using headings and subheadings. > **Tip** > > You must mark headings with styles such as Heading 1, Heading 2, and so on. > ### Heading 1 > > Section content goes here... > > #### Heading 2 > > Subsection content goes here... ## Bullet points - Break lists into bullet points. - Number the list if you often refer to individual points. ## Shorter paragraphs Break text into shorter paragraphs. That will greatly increase ease of scanning. Your readers will also not be put off by a big block of text. ## Bold key phrases **Bold key phrases** in longer paragraphs. This has been shown to **increase comprehension**. **Do not bold** entire sentences or paragraphs. **Blocks of bold text are more difficult to process visually.** ## Background last Start with the key new information. Do not leave out important background but put it last. *Sometimes all you have to do is take the first paragraph and put it second or at the end.* 1. **Key Information** 2. Background / Context 3. Decorative / Welcomes > Do not remove important information, but documents often start with welcomes and introductions that are essentially decorative. You can easily **skip decorative text**. Decorative text just gets in the way. ## Show outline Show the outline of the text. You can use: - **1** Table of contents - **2** List of key points - **3** Icons with keywords ## Shorter sentences Shortening sentences will increase readability of your text more than any other advice on simple language. Keep the average between **15 and 20 words per sentence**. > **Some other language tips:** > > - Address the reader rather than talk about them. > - Use verbs rather than nouns when possible. > - Avoid repeating the same word in lists. ## Line length Shorter lines are easier to scan. It is not the physical length but the number of characters. Keep your lines between **50 and 70 characters**. > ~ 60 characters wide ~ > This box demonstrates a constrained line length. It is much easier for the eye to track back to the start of the next line when the line is not too long. - People who use **magnifiers** will find it easier to follow. - **Increasing the font size** achieves the same effect. ## Font size and spacing You can increase speed of reading by up to 10% if you simply make the font bigger and increasing line spacing. This should really be the first thing you do but you may not always have control over this. **Ideal Settings** - **Line Spacing** **1.2 - 1.5** - **Font Size** **Min 12pt** (more is often better) **Examples** - **Handout** Arial 14pt - **Long Text** Times New Roman 13pt - **PowerPoint** Arial 28pt+ - **Email** Calibri 14pt ## Graphics use Graphics can increase comprehension and ease navigation. They also make the text more approachable. However, beware of overusing graphics by simply adding too many decorative elements that have little relevance to the content. **Good uses** - Icons added to lists - Charts used to summarise - Images used to illustrate **Avoid** - Superfluous images - Images not related to the text - Very busy and distracting images or icons --- > Section 5 of 14 · 10 tips for slides · id `10-simple-things-ppt` · [read in the reader](https://dominiklukes.net/books/readability/?book=readability-foundations§ion=10-simple-things-ppt) # 10 tips for readable slides Increase impact with text size, smart cropping, animations, and better slide structure. > **Tip** > > Visual examples in **Appendix 5: Examples of slide formatting**. Also see **Appendix 1: PowerPoint and Word Templates**. ## Text size > **Minimum 28pt for Arial** > > Other fonts may need bigger point sizes. Everything else will follow. Text can be slightly smaller when presenting online. But if you’re presenting **text under 18pt**, don’t expect the audience to read it. - **Larger text means you can:** - Break text over multiple slides - Use fewer bullet points - Create a summary slide ## Short lines Do not have lines of text run across the whole slide. Keep to under **30 characters** per line. > **You can get shorter lines by:** > > 1. Increasing the font size > 2. Using two columns > 3. Using SmartArt ## Bolding of key phrases **DO** **Bold key phrases** in any block of text such as quotation. You should even bold key phrases or key words in **longer lists**. **AVOID** **Avoid** bolding complete sentences or whole paragraphs. Too much bold text is more difficult to process visually. ## No text over images > Always add a solid background to text if the slide has an image in the background. - Do not place text over an image. - You can make the **text background slightly transparent** (max 25%). - You can also increase the **transparency of an image** to make it less distracting. ## Remove logos from every slide You do not need a logo on every slide. Keep any branding to **only the title and final slide**. Logos on every slide introduce another element of potential distraction. ## Convert bullets to SmartArt Use SmartArt instead of bullets. Right-click on any list and choose: **Convert to SmartArt**. **Benefits** - Provides visual division - Makes it easier to indicate relationships - Forces shorter text - Transforms logical structure to visuals **Avoid** - Small text - Too much text - Very busy and complicated lists > **SmartArt tips** > > - Use Design Ideas to convert lists > - Edit text in the outline, not graphics > - Convert to shapes for further editing ## Add icons and or colours to lists Adding icons or colours to lists makes them easier to process and remember. Icons also provide visual division. - Easier to process - Easier to remember - Easier visual navigation **Important!** Never use **colour as the only way** to get important information (e.g., 'items marked in red are compulsory'). **Alternatives:** Bolding, Shapes/Outline, Asterisk, Position, Graphics ## Use animations to draw attention Animations can be very distracting. **Use them minimally.** But they can be very useful to **draw interest** to particular elements. > **Examples that support processing:** > > 1. **Arrow** Wipe or Fly in **to point** to an element of an image > 2. **Circle Wipe** to highlight text > 3. **Colour change** of a slide element > **Tip** > > You can add more than one animation to the same element. > "Your aim is to draw the viewers' attention to what you are talking about at the moment." ## Make images full screen You can make **images more impactful** if you stretch them across the whole screen. - Zoom in on what is important - Force you to use less text - Make the slide look more modern Many people are afraid to crop. **But cropping is an essential technique** for amplifying the message. > **Transparency to reduce overload** > > Images covering the full slide can be overwhelming. You should set their **transparency to between 30 and 50%**. This is particularly important when you place text over the image. > > - Image with 50% transparency > - Image with 30% transparency > - Image without transparency ## One bullet, one slide Think of the **purpose** of the PowerPoint slide: It is to **help your audience process** what you are saying while you speak. Only show things relevant to the moment. > **If you have a slide with 5 bullets and will spend 1 minute on each:** > > 1. A **title slide** introducing the topic > 2. Individual **slide for each** bullet > 3. **Overview slide** showing the summary of all points --- > Section 6 of 14 · Visual examples (Text) · id `formatting-examples` · [read in the reader](https://dominiklukes.net/books/readability/?book=readability-foundations§ion=formatting-examples) # Visual examples of text formatting See the difference effective formatting makes with side-by-side comparisons of space, bolding, and structure. > **Tip** > > In this section, we illustrate how simple formatting changes—like space, bolding, and bullet points—can dramatically improve readability. These examples are based on content from the GOV.UK [Holiday entitlement](https://www.gov.uk/holiday-entitlement-rights) page. > > **Note:** While GOV.UK is a model of best practice, these examples show how applying specific principles can further aid processing for all readers, especially those with dyslexia or cognitive load challenges. ## Text as experienced by dyslexic readers

Text version of the interactive demonstration. This example simulates cramped text to illustrate how people with dyslexia often experience reading.

The box first shows this paragraph cramped: small justified serif type, lines packed tightly, letters and words squeezed together and slightly blurred. Selecting the box shows the same paragraph in clear, spaced sans-serif type.

An employer can choose to offer more leave than the legal minimum. They do not have to apply all the rules that apply to statutory leave to the extra leave. For example, a worker might need to be employed for a certain amount of time before they become entitled to it.

Seeing text like this increases:

## Benefits of space Simply increasing the font size and line spacing gives the reader a much greater sense of reading ease.

Text version of the interactive demonstration. The same paragraph is shown three times with different type settings.

An employer can choose to offer more leave than the legal minimum. They do not have to apply all the rules that apply to statutory leave to the extra leave. For example, a worker might need to be employed for a certain amount of time before they become entitled to it.

## Benefits of highlighting key words We can make it even easier for the reader to skim and scan the paragraph by **bolding key phrases**. > An **employer can choose to offer more leave** than the legal minimum. They do not have to apply all the rules that apply to statutory leave to the extra leave. **For example**, a worker might need to be employed for a certain amount of time before they become entitled to it. *This makes the text approachable and guides the eye to the main points.* ## Benefits of chunking with bullet points An even more powerful aid to processing is breaking the text into smaller chunks. Bullet points are useful even if the text is not a list in the traditional sense. **Original Paragraph** For this course you are required to submit one individual assignment, weighted at 100%. There will be a choice of two questions; you should answer only one of the two. The assignment should be a maximum of 3,000 words including the main body of text, tables, figures, and diagrams, and excluding appendices, footnotes, and the full list of references at the end of the document. **Chunked Content** For this course you have to submit one individual assignment weighted at 100%. - There will be a choice of two questions; you should answer only one of the two. - The assignment should be a maximum of 3,000 words. - The word count includes: **the main body of text, tables, figures, and diagrams.** - The word count excludes: **appendices, footnotes, full list of references.** ## Benefits of combining bullet points with bolding Even with bullet points, bolding key phrases adds another level of guidance for the reader. It makes text more readable even with a smaller font. > **Assignment Details (Dark Mode Example)** > > For this course you have to **submit one individual assignment** weighted at 100%. > > - There will be a choice of **two questions**; you should **answer only one** of the two. > - The assignment should be a **maximum of 3,000 words**. > - The **word count includes**: main body of text, tables, figures, and diagrams. > - The **word count excludes**: appendices, footnotes, reference list. --- > Section 7 of 14 · Visual examples (Slides) · id `slide-formatting-examples` · [read in the reader](https://dominiklukes.net/books/readability/?book=readability-foundations§ion=slide-formatting-examples) # Visual examples of slide formatting Before and after examples of slide layouts, zooming, and structure. Visual comparisons demonstrating how to break down complex slides, remove clutter, and maximize visual impact. ## One bullet, one slide Instead of keeping a single slide with a title and six bullets, break it down into an introductory slide, a summary slide, and individual slides.

Text version of the interactive demonstration. The weaker and the better version of the slide are shown side by side.

## Remove extraneous text from images Clean up complex diagrams by removing the title and descriptive paragraphs, allowing you to zoom in on the graphic itself.

Text version of the interactive demonstration. The weaker and the better version of the slide are shown side by side.

## Zooming in on images Full-screen images are better than images next to text. You almost never lose any important information by cropping.

Text version of the interactive demonstration. The weaker and the better version of the slide are shown side by side.

--- > Section 8 of 14 · 3 steps to simple language · id `3-steps-simple` · [read in the reader](https://dominiklukes.net/books/readability/?book=readability-foundations§ion=3-steps-simple) # 3 steps to simpler language Master the art of simplification: shorter sentences, addressing the reader, and using verbs. You can find many guides to simple language or Plain English. These three steps are intended to give you a usable guide that will give you the most benefit. [See Examples of simplified language](#/examples) ## Shorten sentences Long sentences take more time and effort to process both visually and grammatically. Keeping your average length under 20 words is a sensible rule of thumb. **Why long sentences are difficult:** 1. It is more difficult to visually scan to the important point 2. You have to use more complex grammar to connect sentences 3. There is more to keep in memory **How to shorten sentences:** 1. Divide the sentence up at the conjunction such as 'but' or 'and'. 2. Instead of using 'and', simply start a new sentence. 3. Instead of 'because', start next sentence with 'this is because'. 4. Convert long sequences to lists. 5. Rephrase with a command. **Useful signals of length/complexity:** Words like: **While**, **Whether**, **However**. **When NOT to shorten:** - You need to express a very complex idea. - Splitting would create more language to process. [Try Readability Checker](#/readability-tool) ## Address the reader Addressing the reader is a subtle signal that what you are saying applies to them. This makes them more likely to pay attention. - **"You"** Instead of a noun. "You must wear a mask" vs "Attendees must..." - **Command** Direct Instruction. Plain verb without "to" - **"We"** Instead of institution. "We will help" vs "Our organisation will..." ## Use verbs instead of nouns Written English uses more nouns than verbs. Because of this we often use **nouns to describe actions**. This take **longer to process** and readers may feel **less likely to do the action**. Complicated nouns are common in academic and bureaucratic English. E.g. **Provision, Availability, Attendance, Failure**. **Noun Heavy** "Failure to achieve compliance will result prosecution." **Verb Change** "If you fail to comply, you will be prosecuted." > **Direct Speech** > > "If you do not follow the rules, we will take you to court." > Chapter links in this section, as exported files: > > - [See Examples of simplified language](https://dominiklukes.net/books/readability/agent/readability-foundations/chapters/examples.md) (written as `#/examples`) > - [Try Readability Checker](https://dominiklukes.net/books/readability/agent/readability-foundations/chapters/readability-tool.md) (written as `#/readability-tool`) --- > Section 9 of 14 · Examples · id `examples` · [read in the reader](https://dominiklukes.net/books/readability/?book=readability-foundations§ion=examples) # Examples of simplified language Concrete examples of simplified language and how rephrasing improves clarity. ## Benefits of rephrasing text to address the reader Using the principles of simple language, we can see that rephrasing text to address the reader changes the focus. > **More leave possible for you as an employee** > > - Your employer **can choose to offer more leave** than the legal minimum > - **Extra leave** you receive does **not require same rules** as statutory leave > - **Example:** Extra leave may only be available to you after you have been employed for some time You can see another example of rephrasing a policy paragraph. Things that were changed are underlined. **Version with abstract nouns** The purpose of the assignment is to provide candidates with the opportunity to demonstrate that they have understood the key concepts and frameworks covered in the module and are able to synthesise and analyse this material, including examples, to construct a coherent argument. **Version that addresses the reader** This assignment will **give you an opportunity** to demonstrate that **you have understood** the key concepts and frameworks covered in the module and that **you are able** to synthesise and analyse this material, **include examples, and construct** a coherent argument. ## Benefits of shortening sentences The example above can also be improved by **splitting it into two sentences**: > This assignment will give you an opportunity to demonstrate that you have understood the key concepts and frameworks covered in the module. You will also show that you can to synthesise and analyse this material, include examples, and construct a coherent argument. The reader of the modified version is more likely to focus on all parts of the assignment. ## Benefits of reducing decorative text > Decorative text often adds a processing burden without adding any useful information. Here is an **example of a page redesign** where a prominent **welcome message was removed**. It was replaced by bullet points outlining key information and quick links. Notice, that the amount of text on the redesigned page did not change. In fact, **words were added to the section links** to give readers a sense of what they can expect on the page. --- > Section 10 of 14 · Jargon & Acronyms · id `acronyms` · [read in the reader](https://dominiklukes.net/books/readability/?book=readability-foundations§ion=acronyms) # Jargon and acronyms How to handle jargon and acronyms for different audiences. Avoiding jargon and acronyms is common advice for simple readable language. Unfortunately, this is not easy advice to put into action. Whether acronyms or jargon are appropriate will depend on the subject and the audience. ## Jargon and difficult words > **Thinking about the audience** > > What is a difficult word or jargon varies by the knowledge and experience of the reader. For a **professional group**, not using jargon would make communication more difficult. It would lead to misunderstanding. > > > In famous cartoon [xkcd: Up Goer Five](https://xkcd.com/1133/), uses only the 1000 most frequent words in English to describe a space rocket. It would be **easier for even lay readers to learn basic jargon** such as "escape hatch" than to read an entire article like this. > > The **problem with using jargon** in public communication is not that the reader does not know it but that it is used unthinkingly. It is possible to use jargon in such a way that the reader's knowledge is built up as they read. ### Types of audiences and their needs | Type of audience | Audience needs | Strategies for using jargon | | --- | --- | --- | | Professional in-group | Jargon is part of the vocabulary expected of every member | Use jargon freely | | Professional out-group (e.g. related profession) | Jargon is part of the vocabulary but many aspects of the specialist jargon used in the text may be unfamiliar | Use jargon freely but consider:

Take extra care to define what you mean by specialist terms. | | Prospective members of professional in-group | Likely unfamiliar with most jargon but are expected to learn. | Use jargon in such a way that the readers' knowledge is built up gradually.
| | General public | Unfamiliar with jargon of your profession and discipline.
Will not engage with your text for long enough to be expected to learn or look up jargon. | | > **Note** > > Avoiding jargon is a balancing act with **no perfect solution**. Even with care, many professional writers may not realise that terms they use daily in informal conversations are actually jargon. > > Also, **jargon is usually not the biggest problem** the reader will face. Often, dense paragraphs with long complex sentences will be more of a problem. ## Acronyms Acronyms are a **type of jargon**. They are often used as part of the vocabulary of a professional group. All the tips about jargon apply here, as well. **Pros of acronyms** - Reduce amount of repetitive text - Make sentence with complex structures easier to process - Use more familiar form of a name to a group **Cons of acronyms** - Readers with dyslexia struggle with processing unfamiliar words - Screen readers pronounce acronyms unpredictably - People outside your group have to learn them as jargon > "In fact, many acronyms just become words for groups of people who use them often. They become part of the vocabulary that is expected of a member of the group. It would be doing your readers a disservice not to use the acronym even if the reader is new to the group." ### How to use acronyms | Type of audience | Types of document | Strategies | | --- | --- | --- | | Internal group | | You can use common acronyms freely without providing the full text anywhere.
Make sure that new members of the group can access the acronyms. | | Professional group with external members | | | | Public communication | | | > **Ad-hoc acronyms** > > Writers in academic settings will often make up **acronyms for a repetitive term** that occurs frequently. Often, they do this for two **contrasting terms**. For instance, in this text, I might have chosen J, A, AHA for jargon, acronyms, and ad-hoc acronyms. > > > **This is almost never worth it.** > > > > Remember, a paragraph that may take you 15-30 minutes to write will take your reader about 1 minute to read. The reader has much less time to become familiar with it. Your readers are **more likely to confuse the terms** and misunderstand the text. --- > Section 11 of 14 · Readability Checker · id `readability-tool` · [read in the reader](https://dominiklukes.net/books/readability/?book=readability-foundations§ion=readability-tool) # Readability Checker Interactive tool to check sentence length and identify complex text.

Text version of the interactive demonstration. The checker splits a text into sentences, counts the words in each and reports three figures: the number of sentences, the total number of words and the average number of words per sentence (shown in amber when above 20, otherwise green).

Sentences of more than 20 words are highlighted orange; sentences of more than 35 words are highlighted red. Each sentence shows its word count on hover.

The checker opens with this sample text:

Paste your text here to check sentence lengths. Long sentences can make your text difficult to read and process. By identifying these long sentences, you can break them down into smaller chunks that are easier for your audience to understand.

For the sample the checker reports 3 sentences, 40 words and an average of 13.3 words per sentence. Sentence 3 (21 words) is highlighted orange.

--- > Section 12 of 14 · Language Checklist · id `checklist` · [read in the reader](https://dominiklukes.net/books/readability/?book=readability-foundations§ion=checklist) # Simple Language Checklist A quick checklist to audit your content for simple language principles. Use this checklist to audit your content for simple language principles. - Average sentence length is under 20 words - Addressed the reader as "You" - Used active verbs instead of abstract nouns - Paragraphs are short (under 5 sentences) - Key information is placed first - Formatting (bolding) used for key phrases - Lists broken into bullet points - Headings used to structure content - Layout uses plenty of white space --- > Section 13 of 14 · Accessibility · id `accessibility` · [read in the reader](https://dominiklukes.net/books/readability/?book=readability-foundations§ion=accessibility) # Accessibility for users of screen readers or magnifiers Essential guidelines for screen readers, magnifiers, Word, PDF, and meaningful links. All of the top 10 readability tips will increase the overall accessibility of your documents. You must also take into account people who may use screen readers or magnifiers. ## Document Guidelines **Word** - Always mark sections with **Heading styles** - Use the **list for bullets** - Mark first **row of tables** as header - Indicate **Alternative Text** for images - **Do not** place text in text boxes or tables for borders **PDF** - Start from an **accessible Word** document - Use **Save as PDF** (don't print) - Convert **Headings to PDF bookmarks** - **Add title** to document info > **PowerPoint** > > - Use **template layouts** > - Every slide must have **a title** (can be hidden) > - Use **tables** for complex relationships > - All images must have **Alternative text** > - Save **PowerPoint as PDF** for SmartArt ## Accessibility Checker > **Use the Accessibility Checker** > > Available in Word, PowerPoint, and Excel to get detailed reports on your document's accessibility issues. ## Alternative to slides Slides are primarily a visual medium. Providing **a structured handout** with an outline of the key points and references can be more useful for somebody with a screen reader than adding image descriptions to slides. ## Links When sharing links in documents, emails, or webpages, make sure the content of the link is clear without context. **What to do** Use the **name of the page** instead and make it clickable. **Avoid:** "Click here", Raw URLs **Why it matters** - Screen reader users often navigate directly by link, and "Click here" provides no context. - Reading out a long URL is confusing and difficult to understand. - Dyslexic readers are confused by the additional visual noise of raw URLs. --- > Section 14 of 14 · Evidence · id `evidence` · [read in the reader](https://dominiklukes.net/books/readability/?book=readability-foundations§ion=evidence) # How do we know? (The evidence) Scientific evidence and research supporting these readability principles. > **Readability Research** > > Readability is a difficult subject to get reliable data on. It is difficult to define exactly what a readable text is and how to measure it. Various measures have been introduced: > > - Speed of reading > - Comprehension > - Subjective perception > - Text interaction > > But each of these has many confounders. Because no unified measures exist, there are few systematic reviews. However, many studies generally point in the same direction. ## Evidence for text formatting The key interventions supported by evidence are: - **Font size** (Rello and Baeza-Yates 2017; Rello, Pielot, and Marcos 2016; Simas da Rocha et al. 2020) - **Line length** (Nanavati and Bias 2005) - **Bolding of key words** (Rello, Kanvinde, and Baeza-Yates 2012) - **Using colours** (Simas da Rocha et al. 2020; Jandreau, Muncer, and Bever 1986) ## Evidence for text structure - **Structured text is easier to read** (Kendeou and van den Broek 2007; Schwarz and Flammer 1981) - **Eye tracking studies support this** Well supported by eye tracking studies on web reading by [Norman Nielsen Group](https://www.nngroup.com/articles/f-shaped-pattern-reading-web-content/). ## Evidence for simple language - **Using frequent and short words** (Rello et al. 2013; Dale and Chall 1949) - **Limits of readability formulas** (Bruce, Rubin, and Starr 1981) ## Evidence for reading strategies > Strategic reading is one of the key recommendations for improving academic reading. There is good evidence that it improves comprehension and information retention. > > **(Voss and Silfies 1996; Kendeou and van den Broek 2007; Bogaerds-Hazenberg, Evers-Vermeul, and Bergh 2021)** ## References - Bogaerds-Hazenberg, Suzanne T. M., Jacqueline Evers-Vermeul, and Huub van den Bergh. 2021. ‘A Meta-Analysis on the Effects of Text Structure Instruction on Reading Comprehension in the Upper Elementary Grades’. *Reading Research Quarterly* 56 (3): 435–62. [https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.311](https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.311) - Bruce, Bertram, Andee Rubin, and Kathleen Starr. 1981. ‘Why Readability Formulas Fail’. *IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication* PC-24 (1): 50–52. [https://doi.org/10.1109/TPC.1981.6447826](https://doi.org/10.1109/TPC.1981.6447826) - Dale, Edgar, and Jeanne S. Chall. 1949. ‘The Concept of Readability’. *Elementary English* 26 (1): 19–26. - Jandreau, Steven M, Steven J Muncer, and Thomas G Bever. 1986. ‘Improving the Readability of Text with Automatic Phrase-Sensitive Formating’. *British Journal of Educational Technology* 17 (2): 128–33. [https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8535.1986.tb00502.x](https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8535.1986.tb00502.x) - Kendeou, Panayiota, and Paul van den Broek. 2007. ‘The Effects of Prior Knowledge and Text Structure on Comprehension Processes during Reading of Scientific Texts’. *Memory & Cognition* 35 (7): 1567–77. [https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03193491](https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03193491) - Nanavati, Anuj A., and Randolph G. Bias. 2005. ‘Optimal Line Length in Reading - A Literature Review’. *Visible Language* 39 (2): 120–44. - Rello, Luz, and Ricardo Baeza-Yates. 2017. ‘How to Present More Readable Text for People with Dyslexia’. *Universal Access in the Information Society* 16 (1): 29–49. - Rello, Luz, Ricardo Baeza-Yates, Laura Dempere-Marco, and Horacio Saggion. 2013. ‘Frequent Words Improve Readability and Short Words Improve Understandability for People with Dyslexia’. In *IFIP Conference on Human-Computer Interaction*, 203–19. Springer. - Rello, Luz, Gaurang Kanvinde, and Ricardo Baeza-Yates. 2012. ‘Layout Guidelines for Web Text and a Web Service to Improve Accessibility for Dyslexics’. In *Proceedings of the International Cross-Disciplinary Conference on Web Accessibility*, 1–9. - Rello, Luz, Martin Pielot, and Mari-Carmen Marcos. 2016. ‘Make It Big! The Effect of Font Size and Line Spacing on Online Readability’. In *Proceedings of the 2016 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems*, 3637–48. - Schwarz, Maria N. K., and August Flammer. 1981. ‘Text Structure and Title—Effects on Comprehension and Recall’. *Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior* 20 (1): 61–66. [https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-5371(81)90301-7](https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-5371(81)90301-7) - Simas da Rocha, Bruno, Cassia Garcia Moraes, Lucas Miyake Okumura, Fernanda da Cruz, Lisana Sirtori, and Emilia da Silva Pons. 2020. ‘Interventions to Reduce Problems Related to the Readability and Comprehensibility of Drug Packages and Labels: A Systematic Review.’ *Journal of Patient Safety*, April. [https://doi.org/10.1097/pts.0000000000000619](https://doi.org/10.1097/pts.0000000000000619) - Voss, James F., and Laurie Ney Silfies. 1996. ‘Learning From History Text: The Interaction of Knowledge and Comprehension Skill with Text Structure’. *Cognition and Instruction* 14 (1): 45–68. [https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532690xci1401\_2](https://doi.org/10.1207/s1532690xci1401_2)